Questions in Egyptology 9: The Death of Cleopatra

Questions in Egyptology 9: The Death of Cleopatra

The Death of Cleopatra

  • The death of Cleopatra VII, the last ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt, remains shrouded in mystery and intrigue.

  • Did she choose noble death or fear public humiliation at the hands of Octavius Augustus?

  • In this blog post, we delve into the historical accounts surrounding Cleopatra’s demise, exploring conflicting narratives and shedding light on the enigmatic circumstances surrounding her death.

Juan Luna de San Pedro y Novicio Ancheta Public Domain.

Conflicting Accounts

  • Immediately after Cleopatra’s death, conflicting accounts began circulating, leaving historians with varying perspectives.
  • Greek and Roman historians such as Strabo, Horace, Plutarch, Livy, and Cassius Dio offered their interpretations of the event.
  • Contemporary historians such as the American art historian Robert Bianchi have added their opinions to the fray.  So, let’s look at the evidence.

The Unheard of Act in Ancient Egypt:

  • Suicide was virtually unheard of in ancient Egypt, adding intrigue to the story of Cleopatra’s final moments. Ancient Egyptians generally did not consider suicide a violation of their religious or legal codes.
  • The absence of archaeological evidence of suicides in ancient Egyptian civilization further supports this notion. However, literary texts like ‘Desperate from Life’ hint that some individuals contemplated ending their own lives as they grappled with despair, injustice, and corruption in the world. The question is – How did these attitudes affect Cleopatra’s plans for her death?

Cleopatra’s Possible Motivations:

  • While historical accounts of Cleopatra’s death provide differing explanations, several factors could have influenced Cleopatra’s decision.
  • One possibility is that she sought to maintain her dignity and noble status in death, avoiding the humiliation of being paraded through the streets of Rome.
  • Cleopatra, known for her intelligence and strategic thinking, may have considered suicide as a means to preserve her legacy and reputation.

The Intriguing Puzzle:

  • The circumstances surrounding Cleopatra’s death remain a fascinating puzzle.
  • Piecing together fragments from historical accounts allows us to explore the motivations, fears, and aspirations of this powerful and enigmatic ruler.
  • Though we may never have a definitive answer, the mystery surrounding Cleopatra’s death continues to captivate and inspire further inquiry.

Conclusions:

  • The death of Cleopatra, the iconic Queen of Egypt, remains steeped in mystery and speculation.
  • Conflicting accounts, ranging from noble self-sacrifice to avoiding public humiliation, have fueled centuries of debate. The uniqueness of suicide in ancient Egypt adds an additional layer of intrigue.
  • As we delve into historical records and engage with different perspectives, we are reminded of the enigmatic nature of Cleopatra’s life and the ongoing quest to understand the truth behind her dramatic demise.

The Death of Cleopatra, Guido Cagnacci, Met Museum, Public Domain.

Attitudes to Suicide in the Ancient World

  • The historical records of ancient Egypt and Rome offer glimpses into the intriguing relationship between suicide and honour.
  • This blog post explores two distinct cases: the Harem Conspiracy in ancient Egypt and the concept of “patriotic suicide” in ancient Rome. From punishments for conspirators to contrasting views on suicide, we uncover fascinating insights into the complexities of these civilisations and how they may have impacted on Cleopatra’s death.

Suicide in Ancient Egypt – The Harem Conspiracy:

  • Suicide was a rare occurrence in ancient Egyptian society. It was not generally seen as a violation of religious or legal codes, and there is limited archaeological evidence of suicides during that time.
  • However, literary texts such as “Desperate from Life” suggest that some individuals contemplated ending their lives after grappling with despair and injustice in the world. The case of the Harem Conspiracy highlights the unique circumstances in which suicide was potentially offered as a dignified choice for those implicated in a crime.
  • The famous judicial papyrus of Turin reveals details of the Harem Conspiracy, which was a plot to assassinate Egyptian pharaoh Ramses III.
  • The conspirators faced various punishments for their roles in the crime, including execution, flogging, imprisonment, and even severing of the nose.
  • While specific details of individual punishments are unknown, it is believed that members of the royal family were given the option of suicide as a more dignified alternative to execution.

“Patriotic Suicide” in Ancient Rome:

  • In contrast to ancient Egypt, suicide held a different significance in Roman society. Romans embraced the concept of “patriotic suicide,” considering death preferable to dishonour.
  • This belief was rooted in the idea that maintaining one’s honour and reputation was paramount. While suicide was explicitly illegal for soldiers, slaves, and individuals accused of capital crimes, sacrificing oneself for the greater good or preserving honour was widely promoted among the elite.

Complexities and Legalities:

  • The differing attitudes toward suicide in ancient Egypt and Rome highlight the complex relationship between honour, punishment, and personal agency.
  • While suicide was considered a dignified choice for members of the Egyptian royal family implicated in a conspiracy, it held a more nuanced and legally regulated role in Roman society.

Conclusion:

  • The cases of the Harem Conspiracy in ancient Egypt and the concept of “patriotic suicide” in ancient Rome shed light on the intricate connections between suicide, honour, and societal norms.
  • While suicide was rare in ancient Egypt, it was considered a dignified option for specific circumstances. In contrast, Romans held a more complex view, advocating for suicide in specific contexts but strictly regulating its legality.
  • Exploring these historical examples broadens our understanding of the diverse cultural perspectives surrounding suicide in ancient civilisations and perhaps sheds some light on Cleopatra’s thinking when contemplating her demise.

The Classical Accounts

Plutarch’s account of Cleopatra’s Death [3]

John Collier, Prado, Madrid. Public Domain.

Antony and Cleopatra

On hearing of Antony’s defeat at Alexandria, Cleopatra Queen of Egypt, the last of the Ptolemaic dynasty, took off to her tomb.

The snakebite

‘It is said that the asp was brought with those figs and leaves and lay hidden beneath them, for thus Cleopatra had given orders, that the reptile might fasten itself upon her body without her being aware of it.

But when she took away some of the figs and saw it, she said: ‘There it is, you see,’ and baring her arm she held it out for the bite. But others say that the asp was kept carefully shut up in a water jar and that while Cleopatra was stirring it up and irritating it with a golden distaff it sprang and fastened itself upon her arm.

But the truth of the matter no one knows; for it was also said that she carried about poison in a hollow comb and kept the comb hidden in her hair, and yet neither spot nor other sign of poison broke out upon her body.’

Death on a Golden Couch

‘When they opened the doors of the tomb they found Cleopatra lying dead upon a golden couch, arrayed in royal state. And of her two women, the one called Iras was dying at her feet, while Charmion, already tottering and heavy-headed, was trying to arrange the diadem which encircled the queen’s brow.

Then somebody said in anger: ‘A fine deed, this, Charmion!’ ‘It is indeed most fine,’ she said, ‘and befitting the descendant of so many kings.’ Not a word more did she speak, but fell there by the side of the couch.’

‘Moreover, not even was the reptile seen within the chamber, though people said they saw some traces of it near the sea, where the chamber looked out upon it with its windows.

And some also say that Cleopatra’s arm was seen to have two slight and indistinct punctures, and this Caesar also seems to have believed. For in his triumph, an image of Cleopatra herself with the asp clinging to her was carried in the procession. These, then, are the various accounts of what happened.’

Caesar’s Response

‘But Caesar, although vexed at the death of the woman, admired her lofty spirit; and he gave orders that her body should be buried with that of Antony in splendid and regal fashion.

Her women also received honourable interment by his orders. When Cleopatra died she was forty years of age save one, had been queen for two and twenty of these, and had shared her power with Antony more than fourteen.

Antony was fifty-six years of age, according to some, and according to others, fifty-three. Now, the statues of Antony were torn down, but those of Cleopatra were left standing, because Archibius, one of her friends, gave Caesar two thousand talents, in order that they might not suffer the same fate as Antony’s.’

Livy’s Account of Cleopatra’s Death[4]

The Death of Cleopatra, Arthur Reginald Smith, Public Domain.

‘After Caesar had reduced Alexandria, to avoid falling in the victor’s hands, she died by her own hand. Caesar  returned to the city to celebrate three triumphs: one over Illyricum, a second for the victory at Actium, and a third one over Cleopatra; this was the end of the civil wars, in their twenty-second year.’

Livy wrote that when Octavian met Cleopatra, she told him frankly that “I will not be taken as an achievement.’

In reply, Octavian only gave the cryptic answer that her life would be spared. He did not offer specific details about his plans for Egypt or his royal family.

So, when a spy informed Cleopatra that Octavian intended to take her to Rome to be presented as a prisoner in her Roman triumph, she decided to avoid this humiliation and took her own life. She was just 39. [ Book 133].

Strabo’s Account and Horace’s Ode on Cleopatra’s Death[5]

“Nunc est bibendum” or “Now is the time for drinking”, sometimes known as the “Cleopatra Ode”, is one of the most famous of the odes of the Roman lyric poet Horace. Published in 23 BCE, it appeared as Poem 37 in the first book of Horace’s collected “Odes” or “Carmina.”

The poem tells to story of Octavian’s defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium, but neither Cleopatra nor Mark Anthony is named in the poem.

Some commentators say this is because loyal Horace prefers to describe the war as one between Egypt and Rome and not between two Roman families or a civil war.

Horace repeats the notion that Antony and Cleopatra killed themselves.

Horace concurs with Plutarch and Livy that Cleopatra died by her own hand as does Strabo.

Cassius Dio’s Account of Cleopatra’s Death[6]

Cleopatra Meet Julius Caesar, Falkner: Public Domain

Cleopatra’s Gifts

Cleopatra, on her part, unknown to Antony, sent to him (Octavian) a golden sceptre and a golden crown together with the royal throne, signifying that through them she offered him the kingdom as well; for she hoped that even if he did hate Antony, he would yet take pity on her at least.

Caesar accepted her gifts as a good omen, but made no answer to Antony; to Cleopatra, however, although he publicly sent threatening messages, including the announcement that, if she would give up her armed forces and renounce her sovereignty, he would consider what ought to be done in her case, he secretly sent word that, if she would kill Antony, he would grant her pardon and leave her realm inviolate.

‘Upon hearing from the envoys the demands which Caesar made of them, sent to him again. Cleopatra promised to give him large amounts of money. Antony reminded him of their friendship and kinship, made a defence also of his connexion with the Egyptian woman, and recounted all the amorous adventures and youthful pranks which they had shared together. Finally, he surrendered to him Publius Turullius, who was a senator and one of the assassins of Caesar and was then living with Antony as a friend; and he offered to take his own life if in that way Cleopatra might be saved.

Caesar, Antony & Cleoptra

Caesar put Turullius to death, but this time also he gave no answer to Antony. So Antony despatched the third embassy, sending him his son Antyllus with much gold. Caesar accepted the money but sent the boy back empty-handed, giving him no answer. To Cleopatra, Octavian sent many threats and promises of love and loyalty alike, hoping to prevent her from destroying or absconding with the mountain of money she had stacked up in her tomb.

In the meantime, Octavian’s army proceeded to take the city of Pelusium in the delta. But believing Octavian’s protestations of affection, Cleopatra forbade the Alexandrians to rise against him, and so he took Alexandria as well. She clearly expected forgiveness, according to Cassius.

Antony, we are told, took refuge in his fleet and was preparing to give battle on the sea or, at any rate, to sail to Spain. When Cleopatra heard he was taking her ships, she ordered her sailors to desert and moved into her tomb, saying she feared Caesar and would thus take her own life. Cassius interprets this move as an act of betrayal to Antony. According to Cassius, Cleopatra’s cry for help would either make Antony rush to her side where she would kill him, or he would kill himself if he heard she had taken her own life. Either way, the wicked Cleopatra would ensure the end of the once-noble Antony.

Cassius tells us that Antony went to the tomb dripping with blood because he had stabbed himself in the stomach when a friend refused to kill him. An implausible scenario, if you ask me. Why stab yourself before you go to rescue your wife and the mother of your children? Nevertheless, Cassius asks us to believe this and also that Antony died in Cleopatra’s arms in her tomb while she waited for Octavius to forgive her.

She embalmed Antony’s body and buried him. Then we are told Octavius removed anything she could use to kill herself from her apartment because he wanted her alive. A couple of sentences later, Cassius describes how Cleopatra redecorated the apartment, added a golden couch and draped herself upon it invitingly, thus ignoring her duty of mourning her dead husband, Antony. In Cassius’ eyes, Cleopatra was a fully paid up scheming slut.

Cleopatra, we are told, convinced Octavius she would travel to Rome with him while she planned her own demise. Her plan was to die as painlessly as possible. Cassius clearly thought she was a coward too. After putting on her best clothes and draping herself in symbols of royalty, she lay on her golden coach and killed herself.

Conclusions

The balance of evidence from the texts suggests Cleopatra died by her own hand.  Such as death would have been perfectly acceptable and even honourable for a defeated queen in Egypt and in Rome.

In Doi’s version of her death, which is the most detailed, all the men are portrayed more honourably than her. This is the same Roman attitude to women who were considered to have transgressed sexually and betrayed their Imperial husbands as we see applied to Empress Messalina. It is straightforward misogyny.

A respectable woman in ancient Rome was required to keep a low profile. Women were supposed to be defined by their husbands, fathers, and sons. They were required to live faithful uncomplaining lives. Modesty and fidelity were the foremost virtues of a Roman woman – virtues Cleopatra clearly did not believe in either because she was not Roman or most probably because she was a queen in her own right and not a consort.

Whenever a Roman woman went out, assuming she was of noble birth, she would be chaperoned by slaves. She had to cover her body in a long gown called a stola, including her face. Over it, she wore a ‘palla’ or cloak. Indeed until the reign of Octavius Augustus, there were no statues of women at all. A noblewoman’s body was no business of anyone else except her husband. And, no respectable Roman woman would dare to be found lying around half-dress on a golden couch, especially when she was supposed to be mourning for her dead husband!

Valerius Maximus, writing in the century after Cleopatra’s death, gives several examples of errant women being ‘punished’ by their husbands. Egnatius Metellus, he tells us, bludgeoned his wife to death merely for drinking wine. Valerius tells his readers that far from being charged with murder, he received no public censure. According to Valerius, women needed to be kept under male control to stop them from scheming, as did Marcus Porcius Cato, otherwise known as Cato the Censor. [7]

It is possible Octavius might have paraded her at his triumph but unlikely. Working on the basis Cleopatra was not a ‘savage’ Gaul like Vertingeterex; and that she was the vanquished queen of the most culturally advanced nation on earth when she died, it is unlikely Augustus would have humiliated her. However, she was not a good example, so it was open season on her reputation for authors like Dio, whether she had died at her own hand or from a gnat bite.

Cleopatra – Waterhouse, Public Domain.

Sources

[1] LA Times, MIMI MANN, MARCH 15, 1992 12 AM PT
[2] Attitudes Toward Death and Suicide, HANKOFF L D, 1975, Pharos of Alpha Omega Alpha, v.38, no.2, (April 1975), p.60-64,75, SIEC No: 19840001
[3] Plutarch’s Lives, Tufts University.
[4] Livy, Periochae Book 133
[5] https://www.ancient-literature.com/rome_horace_odes_1_37.html#:~:text=%E2%80%9CNunc%20est%20bibendum%E2%80%9D%20(%E2%80%9C,Odes%E2%80%9D%20or%20%E2%80%9CCarmina%E2%80%9D.
[6] DIO’S ROMAN HISTORY, Book 51, THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY VI.
[7] Robert Garland, PhD, Colgate University, The Other Side of History: The Ideal Roman Woman, Great Courses Daily, 2021.

 

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Questions in Egyptology 7: Did the Ancient Egyptians go to Sea?

Questions in Egyptology 7: Did the Ancient Egyptians go to Sea?

The maritime history of ancient Egypt reveals their seafaring activities, trade links, and naval power. Discover the archaeological discoveries and shipbuilding techniques that shed light on Egypt’s relationship with the sea.

Did the Ancient Egyptians go to Sea?

Plutarch tells us that the ancient Egyptians equated the seas with Typhon, the Greek version of the Egyptian god of chaos Seth. Having said that, some ancient Egyptian mariners must have sailed along the coast from time to time to get wood, notably cedarwood.

We know this because Egyptian manufactures dating to the 5th millennium BCE or Badarian culture, have been found as far north as Syria and the archaeological record shows that the predynastic Maadi were importing pottery as well as construction ideas from Canaan a thousand years later. Whether these ideas and trade came to Egypt over land or over the sea is still an unanswered question.

Indeed, shipbuilding was known to the Ancient Egyptians as early as 3000 BCE and perhaps earlier. The ancient Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood to form a ship’s hull. They used woven straps to lash the planks together and stuffed the gaps with reed and grass caulking. The Archaeological Institute of America reports that the first ship found to date was probably constructed for the Pharaoh Aha around 3000 BCE and was 75 feet long.

Evidence also suggests an Egyptian colony existed in southern Canaan in the First Dynasty. In 1994, excavators discovered an incised ceramic shard with the serekh sign of Narmer, dating to c. 3000 BCE. Mineralogical studies reveal the shard to be a fragment of a wine jar exported from the Nile Valley to Palestine. Due to Egypt’s climate, wine was very rare and nearly impossible to produce so the wine probably came from Greece showing there were trade links to ancient Greece and the Greek island cultures.

Summary of the evidence so far:

  • While Plutarch suggests that Egyptians equated the seas with chaos, some mariners from this civilization ventured along the coast to obtain valuable resources like cedarwood.
  • Archaeological findings reveal that Egyptian manufactures dating back to the 5th millennium BCE reached as far north as Syria, indicating possible trade with neighbouring regions. However, whether these exchanges occurred overland or through maritime routes remains a mystery.
  • Shipbuilding was a well-known skill among the ancient Egyptians, dating as far back as 3000 BCE. The construction of ship hulls using assembled planks of wood, woven straps, and reed and grass caulking allowed them to navigate the waters effectively. The Archaeological Institute of America discovered the first ancient Egyptian ship, believed to have been constructed for Pharaoh Aha around 3000 BCE, measuring an impressive 75 feet in length.
  • Further evidence suggests the existence of an Egyptian colony in southern Canaan during the First Dynasty. The discovery of an incised ceramic shard with the sign of Narmer, dating back to approximately 3000 BCE, revealed trade links with Palestine. The shard, believed to be a wine jar fragment, highlights the rarity of wine production in Egypt’s climate, suggesting a probable import from Greece.

Photograph of Greek wine amphora by Ad Meskens Amphorae stacking.jpg

The Old & Middle Kingdoms

The mention of sea trade in ancient Egypt is evident in historical records and inscriptions that shed light on the significant role of maritime activities in the civilization’s economic and cultural development. One such notable reference comes from the Palermo Stone, an ancient Egyptian historical document that provides valuable insights into the reign of Pharaoh Sneferu.

According to the Palermo Stone, Pharaoh Sneferu, who ruled during the Old Kingdom period, commissioned the construction of Tuataua, ships made of precious mer wood, each with a capacity of one hundred. Additionally, the inscription records the capture of sixty royal boats, each capable of holding sixteen individuals, and the transportation of forty ships laden with cedarwood. These ships likely played a vital role in the pharaoh’s ambitious pyramid-building projects.

The reference to the wood’s origin suggests an intricate system of trade and connections with neighbouring regions. The cedarwood was most probably obtained from Byblos, an ancient city located in modern-day Lebanon. Byblos was renowned for its high-quality timber, especially cedar, which was highly sought after by the ancient Egyptians for construction purposes. This indicates the existence of maritime trade routes and the ability of ancient Egyptian sailors to navigate and venture to foreign lands in search of valuable resources.

Moreover, the inscription highlights the economic significance of sea trade in ancient Egypt. The procurement of wood from distant lands, such as Byblos, showcases the strategic importance of maritime commerce and the ability of the ancient Egyptians to engage in long-distance trade for their architectural and economic needs.

Apart from trade with foreign lands, the Palermo Stone also provides valuable information about a crucial trade centre known as Yam in Nubia. Yam was recognized as a resource-rich region for wood, ivory, and gold, and it held significant importance during the Old Kingdom. Though the precise location of Yam remains a subject of debate, it is believed to have been situated somewhere in the Shendi Reach area of the Nile in modern-day Sudan.

The trade relations with Yam illustrate the ancient Egyptians’ proficiency in exploring and exploiting resources beyond their borders. This expansion of trade networks not only facilitated economic growth but also played a vital role in cultural exchange and the dissemination of knowledge and ideas.

In conclusion, the references to sea trade found in the Palermo Stone and other historical records demonstrate the ancient Egyptians’ adeptness in maritime activities. Their prowess in sailing, navigation, and long-distance trade contributed to the flourishing of their civilization and played a pivotal role in the construction of monumental structures like the pyramids. The evidence of trade with regions like Byblos and Yam showcases the extensive reach and influence of ancient Egyptian sea trade, making it a crucial aspect of their remarkable civilization.

Recent Discoveries at Wadi el-Jarf

Recent archaeological findings have shed new light on the maritime activities of ancient Egypt, particularly during the reign of Pharaoh Khufu, the builder of the iconic Great Pyramid of Giza. These discoveries suggest that the ancient Egyptians had a significant presence at sea and actively ventured eastward on maritime expeditions in pursuit of materials essential for their royal projects.

In 2014, a team of archaeologists from the French Institute of Archaeology in Cairo and Sorbonne University made a groundbreaking discovery at Wadi el-Jarf on the Red Sea coast. Beneath the waves, they unearthed the remains of an enormous harbour that has been dated back an astounding 4,600 years ago. This places the harbour’s existence right in the era of Khufu, during his reign from 2580 to 2550 B.C.E.

The sheer size and complexity of the harbour point to its significance as a strategic hub for ancient Egyptian maritime activities. Experts believe that it served as a crucial port, facilitating the transportation of essential resources, materials, and manpower necessary for the construction of Khufu’s monumental pyramid. This discovery lends strong evidence to the notion that the ancient Egyptians possessed impressive seafaring capabilities and conducted maritime trade and exploration.

The harbour’s location, 180 kilometres south of Suez and nestled in the foothills of the desert mountains, was strategically chosen for its proximity to key resources and trade routes. Its positioning allowed the ancient Egyptians to efficiently acquire the materials they needed, such as high-quality limestone and other construction materials, to build awe-inspiring pyramids and other monumental structures.

The significance of the Wadi el-Jarf harbour goes beyond its function as a mere trading post. It reflects the organizational prowess of ancient Egyptian society, as building such an extensive harbour infrastructure required sophisticated engineering and construction skills. The harbour was likely equipped with various facilities to accommodate ships, warehouses to store goods, and workshops to process materials for construction projects.

The discovery at Wadi el-Jarf adds a new chapter to the narrative of ancient Egyptian history, showcasing the ancient civilization’s maritime prowess and its dedication to monumental building projects. It reveals how the ancient Egyptians skillfully navigated the Red Sea to access resources and trade with distant lands, leaving an enduring legacy of their seafaring achievements that continue to captivate modern scholars and historians.

Detail of Cheops’ harbour jetty after excavations, near Wadi el-Jarf.

Note the remains of the L-shaped bank or wall extending into the sea. Pierre Tallet

More evidence supporting the idea that the ancient Egyptians went to sea can be found on the seafloor. The site includes several stone sea anchors for boats that have long since perished.

         Sea anchor: Pierre Tallet

Over the next millennia, the ancient Egyptians traded briskly with peoples around the region, operating from coastal towns on both the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. (Ancient Egyptian wares have been found as far north as Scandinavia but could have reached there through intermediaries in Europe.

So, we know that by the Old Kingdom, the Egyptian kings were authorising royal trading expeditions, endorsing centralised religious ideologies, and using royal favours to distribute status goods and services. Egyptian sea power remained strong throughout the Old Kingdom period.

The Ancient Egyptian term for sailors,seqedu, may specifically refer to those men experienced using the sails. Terms such as nefeu, ist, and aper are generic terms for the crew. The sailors (or recruits) were also called uau, which applies equally to the army as to maritime service. The New Kingdom sailors are shown wearing a leather loincloth designed to provide some cushioning when rowing. A finely made leather loincloth, probably used for parades, was found in the tomb of a fan-bearer named Mayherpery. It seems that the Egyptians had a ‘navy’ of some description. Indeed, the variety of Egyptian terms in use shows that the Ancient Egyptians operated in a sophisticated maritime environment and that their nautical knowledge was quite broad. For instance, the Egyptian term for navigator was nefuu. The word for helmsman was hemu or iry-hemyt, and a ship’s guardian was the sau. The transport officer was themeshekebu. The oarsmen were the khenyt, and the man at the prow or lookout was known at the iry hat (literally ‘the one who is at the head’).

Unveiling Maritime Achievements of the Old & Middle Kingdoms

Summary:

  • The Palermo Stone, reveals Pharaoh Sneferu’s commission to build impressive ships, including Tuataua made of mer wood and 60 royal boats captured for various purposes. Additionally, 40 ships carrying cedarwood were brought from Byblos or Phoenicia, modern-day Lebanon.
  • Recent archaeological discoveries on the Red Sea unveil compelling evidence of ancient Egyptians venturing eastward for royal projects. In 2014, an enormous harbour was found underwater by the French Institute of Archaeology and the Sorbonne University at Wadi el-Jarf, dating back 4,600 years. This coincides with the reign of Khufu, the builder of the Great Pyramid of Giza, suggesting his quest for materials for the pyramid construction.
  • Khufu’s Red Sea harbour, located 180 kilometres south of Suez, showcases further evidence of ancient Egyptian maritime prowess. Numerous stone sea anchors discovered on the seafloor provide insights into their nautical skills, even though the boats themselves have long since perished.
  • Throughout the following millennia, the ancient Egyptians actively engaged in a brisk trade with neighbouring regions, operating from coastal towns on both the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. This trade network extended as far as Scandinavia, indicating their vast influence.
  • In the Old Kingdom, Egyptian kings authorized royal trading expeditions, reflecting the endorsement of centralized religious ideologies and the distribution of status goods and services through royal favour. This period witnessed the consolidation of Egyptian sea power.
  • We learn about the Ancient Egyptian term for sailors, seqedu, and various roles within the crew. Sailors were adept in using sails, while terms like nefeu, ist, and aper were used to describe crew members. Interestingly, sailors were also referred to as uau, a term applicable to both maritime and army service.
  • Ancient Egyptian nautical knowledge was extensive, evident in their diverse terminologies for roles on board, such as navigator (nefuu), helmsman (hemu or iry-hemyt), ship’s guardian (sau), and transport officer (themeshekebu).
  • Overall, the Old & Middle Kingdoms mark an era of remarkable maritime achievements for ancient Egypt, showcasing their advanced seafaring abilities and expansive trade connections.

The New Kingdom

The reign of the female Pharaoh Hatshepsut, who ruled Egypt from 1479 to 1458 B.C., was marked by significant maritime endeavours that left a lasting impact on Egypt’s history. The walls of her tomb art depict a remarkable sea adventure that showcases her ambitions to strengthen Egypt’s maritime trade and re-establish old trading associations.

In her temple, Hatshepsut records an inspiring story where she sought guidance from the gods, who instructed her to follow in the footsteps of her ancestors and revive ancient trading networks that had fallen into the hands of middlemen. This decision would prove to be a pivotal moment in Egypt’s maritime history.

The inscription on her temple walls also reveals the emergence of new titles related to maritime leadership, demonstrating the significance Hatshepsut placed on Egypt’s naval forces and maritime commerce. Among these titles were ‘fleet captain’, ‘captain of the ships of the king’, ‘captain of galleys’, ‘ship’s captain’, ‘captains of marines’ (literally ‘captain of the ship archers’), ‘officer of the ships’, ‘officer of marines’, ‘standard-bearer of the ship’, ‘standard-bearer of the Marines’, ‘commander of the rowers’, ‘chief of the rowers’, and ‘ship archers,’ among many others.

These new titles indicate the organization and expansion of Egypt’s naval fleet during Hatshepsut’s reign. The presence of officers overseeing various aspects of naval operations, from ship command to rowers and archers, reflects the meticulous planning and strategic approach Hatshepsut adopted to enhance Egypt’s maritime capabilities.

Hatshepsut’s sea adventure was not just a political move but also an economic endeavour. By reviving ancient trade routes and bypassing intermediaries, she aimed to bolster Egypt’s economic prosperity and promote direct trade relations with neighbouring regions. This maritime initiative allowed Egypt to establish direct control over its trade and resources, reducing dependency on middlemen and securing the kingdom’s wealth.

The depiction of this sea adventure in Hatshepsut’s tomb art serves as a testament to her visionary leadership and determination to strengthen Egypt’s maritime power. Her efforts resulted in a flourishing maritime trade network, contributing to Egypt’s status as a dominant player in the ancient world’s commercial activities.

The legacy of Hatshepsut’s maritime achievements can be seen not only in her reign but also in the continued development of Egypt’s maritime culture and prowess. Her strategic approach to naval expansion and trade laid the foundation for the prosperous New Kingdom period, where Egypt’s influence in the Mediterranean and Red Sea regions continued to grow.

In conclusion, Hatshepsut’s tomb art reveals a remarkable sea adventure that represents her ambitious efforts to revitalize Egypt’s maritime trade and assert her authority as a capable pharaoh. The emergence of new naval titles indicates the systematic organization of Egypt’s maritime forces. Hatshepsut’s initiatives not only strengthened Egypt’s economy but also solidified its position as a dominant player in the ancient world’s maritime affairs, leaving a lasting legacy in the annals of Egypt’s maritime history.

 

Hatshepsut’s tomb art.


A Modern Reconstruction

Cheryl Ward, a prominent maritime archaeologist, embarked on a fascinating endeavor to recreate an ancient Egyptian ship that sailed approximately 3,800 years ago. Utilizing traditional materials and collaborating with skilled local artisans, Ward successfully brought this historical vessel to life. The ship’s construction was a laborious and meticulous process, meticulously following the ancient techniques and craftsmanship of that era. Upon its completion, the ship was proudly launched, setting sail down the majestic Red Sea, just as its ancient counterparts had done centuries ago.

This ambitious project not only provided invaluable insights into ancient shipbuilding techniques but also shed light on the navigational skills and maritime expertise of the ancient Egyptians. The successful navigation of the ship along the Red Sea highlighted the seafaring capabilities of this ancient civilization, showcasing their remarkable understanding of maritime navigation and exploration.

Moreover, this recreation demonstrated the importance of maritime activities in ancient Egypt, emphasizing their reliance on the sea for trade, resources, and cultural exchanges with neighbouring regions. It underscored the vital role that maritime commerce played in shaping Egypt’s economy and international relations during ancient times.

Later in history, Egypt’s engagement with seafaring nations took a strategic turn. In response to the growing influence and power of the Persians, the Egyptian leaders formed alliances with the great seafaring nation of the Greeks. These alliances were part of Egypt’s efforts to counter the Persian influence and protect its sovereignty and interests in the Mediterranean and Red Sea regions.

These maritime alliances between Egypt and the Greeks marked a significant chapter in the history of ancient geopolitics. The collaborations between these maritime powers not only strengthened their mutual defences but also fostered cultural exchanges and trade connections between their respective societies. It led to the development of a rich maritime network that contributed to the prosperity and stability of both civilizations.

In conclusion, Cheryl Ward’s remarkable achievement in recreating an ancient Egyptian ship provided invaluable insights into the seafaring prowess of this ancient civilization. The successful navigation of the ship down the Red Sea demonstrated the maritime skills and navigational knowledge of the ancient Egyptians. Furthermore, Egypt’s later alliances with the Greeks showcased the strategic significance of maritime partnerships in shaping the geopolitical landscape of the ancient world. These historical events continue to be a testament to the enduring importance of maritime activities and exchanges in shaping civilizations throughout history.

Sources:

Gilbert, G. P., Porat, N., & van den Brink, E. (Eds.). “An Egyptian Colony in Southern Palestine During the Late Predynastic to Early Dynastic,” in The Nile Delta in Transition: 4th to 3rd Millennium BC(1992), pp. 433–440.
Hagen, R. (2000). Egypt and the Greeks. Cornell University Press.
Homan, M. (2004). “Beer and Its Drinkers: An Ancient Near Eastern Love Story”. Near Eastern Archaeology, 67(2), 87.
Jameson, R., & Shaw, I. (2008). A Dictionary of Archaeology. John Wiley & Sons.
Kitchen, K. A. (2014). The Palermo Stone. Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities, 32, 7-37.
Porat, N. (1986/1987). “Local Industry of Egyptian Pottery in Southern Palestine During the Early Bronze I Period,” in Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar 8, pp. 109–129.
Redford, D. B. (2005). The Wars in Syria and Palestine of Thutmose III. Brill.
Tallet, P. (2011). The Wadi el-Jarf Site and Its Role in the Egyptian Copper and Turquoise Exploitation and the Trade with the Sinai and Southern Canaan during the Fourth Millennium BC. Egyptian Archaeology, 38, 40-43.
Tyldesley, J. (1998). Hatchepsut: The Female Pharaoh. Viking.
Vagnetti, L. (Ed.). (2000). Maritime Technology in the Ancient Economy: Ship-design and Navigation. Brill.
Ward, C. (2002). The Origins of Sea Peoples. In E. H. Cline & D. O’Connor (Eds.), Amenhotep III: Perspectives on His Reign (pp. 87-98). University of Michigan Press.
Wikipedia, ANCIENT EGYPTIAN SEAPOWER AND THE ORIGIN OF MARITIME FORCES.
Wilson, J. A. (1969). Hatshepsut and Her Mortuary Temple: A Royal Sacrifice. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 55(1/2), 79-96.

Divers uncover world’s oldest harbor, in Red Sea, https://www.britishmuseum.org/PDF/Ward.pdf

More Questions In Egyptology Considered:

Questions in Egyptology 6: Did Anubis Have a Magic Eye?

Questions in Egyptology 5: What was the punishment for Ancient Egyptians if caught tomb-robbing?

Questions in Egyptology No. 4: Did the Ancient Egyptians Have a Religion?

Questions in Egyptology No 3. Did the Egyptians Influence the Greeks?

Questions in Egyptology No. 2: How Long Did it Take to Mummify a Pharaoh?

Questions in Egyptology No. 1 – The Cartouche – what did it protect?

Questions in Egyptology 6: Did Anubis Have a Magic Eye?

Questions in Egyptology 6: Did Anubis Have a Magic Eye?

Did Anubis Have a Magic Eye?

In popular and media culture, Anubis is often falsely portrayed as the sinister god of the dead. This version of Anubis gained popularity during the 20th and 21st centuries through books, video games, and movies. Artists gave him evil powers, including an evil eye, and a dangerous army. Despite his nefarious reputation, his image is still the most recognizable of the Egyptian gods, and replicas of his statues and paintings remain popular, somehow people are attracted to what they believe to be this ancient Egyptian god’s power over life and death. These factors are probably the origin of the ‘Eye of Anubis stories.’ There are plenty of examples of Eye of Anubis tattoo designs online. 

In ancient Egyptian mythology, Anubis was never described as having a magic eye. He was, in fact, the god of mummification and the afterlife, responsible for guiding souls to the underworld. Anubis was depicted as a jackal-headed figure, often associated with embalming and funeral rituals.

The idea of an evil eye and a dangerous army attributed to Anubis is a modern invention, stemming from creative interpretations in literature and entertainment. These depictions may add excitement to stories but are far from the true essence of this ancient deity.

Nevertheless, the popularity of these misconceptions about Anubis has spread widely through various media, giving rise to the ‘Eye of Anubis’ stories. These tales often include references to a mystical and malevolent eye, which bears no connection to the authentic beliefs of ancient Egyptians.

The enduring fascination with Anubis’s image and perceived power can be seen in the continued interest in replicas of his statues and paintings. Even in the modern world, people are drawn to the mysterious allure of ancient gods, seeking to connect with the past and its spiritual symbolism.

It’s not uncommon to find online galleries filled with Eye of Anubis tattoo designs. These tattoos, although inspired by fictional portrayals, serve as a testament to the enduring appeal of Egyptian mythology and its captivating iconography.

In conclusion, while Anubis is not associated with a magic eye in genuine ancient Egyptian mythology, the misunderstandings and creative interpretations have given rise to the ‘Eye of Anubis’ tales and tattoo designs. The enduring fascination with this jackal-headed deity demonstrates the timelessness of ancient mythologies and their ability to capture our imaginations even in the modern age.

The Tatooists’ Anubis51+ Best Anubis Tattoos Design And Ideas

In the world of tattoos, symbolism plays a crucial role in choosing designs that hold personal significance and meaning. One popular website for tattooists delves into the symbolism of the Anubis Eye, shedding light on its deeper significance. As a jackal-headed deity, Anubis represented the Egyptian god of the dead and the afterlife, but unlike the sinister portrayals in popular media, Anubis’ symbolism holds a much more optimistic and profound meaning.

Anubis’ image as a tattoo design conveys a focus on the peaceful and protective aspects of death, along with the essential notion of respect that accompanies it. In ancient Egyptian beliefs, death was seen as a transition to the afterlife, where Anubis played a vital role in guiding souls to their eternal resting place. This role as a guide and protector made Anubis an emblem of serenity and safeguarding in the face of mortality.

Comparatively, the Eye of Horus takes on a different significance in Egyptian mythology. Horus, the sky god, had two eyes, each representing distinct aspects of existence. The left eye of Horus symbolized the ‘gift of life,’ signifying the life-affirming forces and vitality that bless us in our mortal journey.

On the other hand, the right eye, known as the Eye of Ra, epitomized the ‘eternal watcher’ and ultimate protection. It served as a potent symbol of safeguarding and divine vigilance over the living and the dead. Horus’ eyes together represented the duality of life and death, embracing the cyclical nature of existence.

Through the fascinating connections in the Tattooist’s Dictionary, Anubis emerges as the preeminent god associated with cemeteries and embalming, inherently linked to the concept of resurrection. This connection with resurrection solidifies Anubis’ association with the positive aspects of death, highlighting the belief in the afterlife and the continuity of the soul beyond the physical realm.

In summary, the symbolism of the Anubis Eye in tattoo designs goes beyond the popular misconceptions of a malevolent god of the dead. Instead, it embodies the optimistic side of death, emphasizing peace, protection, and respect. This portrayal aligns with the role of Anubis as a guide and protector of souls in the afterlife. In contrast, the Eye of Horus represents the ‘gift of life’ and ‘eternal watcher,’ illustrating the balance between life and death in ancient Egyptian mythology. These meaningful symbols allow tattoo enthusiasts to embrace profound concepts and connections to the past while adorning their bodies with art that carries deep personal significance.

The Real Anubis

The real Anubis, the ancient Egyptian god, takes on various depictions, primarily portrayed as a black canine of uncertain species, adorned with a collar and sash around his neck. Alternatively, he is shown as a man with the head of a canine. Anubis held an essential role in Egyptian mythology, initially entrusted with the care of the deceased and guiding their transition to the afterlife. Gradually, he became integrated into the Osirian myth, assuming a prominent position in Egyptian religious beliefs.

As early as the First Dynasty, which dates back to around 3100 to 2890 BC, Anubis was recognized as the protector of graves. Artefacts and tomb art from this period depict him performing the Opening of the Mouth ceremony, a ritual believed to restore life and speech to the deceased in the afterlife.

In the Middle Kingdom Coffin Texts, there are references to Anubis being sent down from the sky to put Osiris in order, showcasing the high regard in which Osiris was held by the gods. Anubis is sometimes considered the son of the sun god, Re, with Hesat or Bast as his mother. However, there are alternative accounts, including Plutarch’s depiction of Anubis as the illegitimate son of Osiris and Nephthys.

Despite the rich mythology surrounding Anubis, there are no indications or references in the ancient texts suggesting that he possessed a special or magical eye. Instead, the motif of the eye held immense significance in Egyptian culture.

In conclusion, Anubis is an ancient and revered god in Egyptian mythology, depicted as a black canine or a man with a canine head. His primary role involved guiding the deceased to the afterlife and protecting graves. While his origins are unclear, there are no references to him possessing a magical eye. Nonetheless, the motif of the eye held deep meaning in Egyptian culture, with examples like Osiris’s name represented by the hieroglyph of an eye, carrying profound symbolism and significance.


More About Magical Eyes

The Eye of Osiris

In ancient Egyptian beliefs, the power of symbols was of immense significance, and one such symbol was the eye. The hieroglyph representing Osiris’s name was none other than an eye, and it is fascinating to consider that this simple glyph carried deep layers of meaning.

Osiris, one of the most revered gods in the Egyptian pantheon, was associated with kingship, fertility, and the afterlife. His name being written in the form of an eye added a mysterious allure to his identity. It is believed that the original meaning of his name was ‘He with many eyes,’ hinting at his vast wisdom and ability to see and understand all aspects of existence.

The Eye of Re

The Eye of Ra was another potent symbol, representing the vigilant and protective nature of the sun god Ra, who watched over and safeguarded his creations. It was believed that Ra’s eye had the power to unleash destructive forces against his enemies, showcasing the duality of creation and destruction inherent in Egyptian beliefs.

The ancient Egyptian mythology surrounding the sun god Re is rich with symbolism, particularly in regard to his eyes. Re was depicted as possessing two eyes, each representing different aspects of existence. His left eye took the form of the moon, personified as Shu, the god of air or space. On the other hand, his right eye embodied the sun, depicted as the lion-headed goddess Tefnut, often misidentified as a god of moisture.

Shu, the cool eye of reason, represented the life-giving breath and the moon, symbolizing yesterday. He complimented Re, providing a sense of balance and tranquillity. Tefnut, the hot eye of vengeance, embodied the power of the sun, signifying today. Together, they represented ma’at, the concept of order, balance, and harmony in Egyptian belief.

The cool eye of Shu, also known as the Eye of Horus or Wadjet, held tremendous significance as a symbol of protection in ancient Egypt. It was often referred to as the “all-seeing eye,” representing watchfulness and vigilance over the living and the dead. As a potent emblem of protection, the Eye of Horus or Wadjet was frequently used as an amulet to safeguard individuals from harm and evil spirits.

In the intricate cosmology of ancient Egypt, Shu personified life and death, symbolizing breath and the moon. Re, as the sun god, represented the present, while Tefnut, envisioned as tomorrow, was the goddess who wielded power against Re’s enemies and could scorch the land when angered.

The interconnectedness of these deities demonstrated the cyclic nature of life, time, and celestial bodies. The sun’s daily journey through the sky represented the eternal cycle of birth, life, death, and rebirth, a central aspect of ancient Egyptian beliefs.

The story of Re’s birth, conceived between the thighs of Nut (the sky goddess), further reinforced the symbolism of life and renewal. Re’s continuous journey across the sky symbolized the passage of time and the constant renewal of life and energy that the sun brought to the world.

In conclusion, the magic eye of Re encompasses the powerful symbolism surrounding the sun god’s dual eyes. Shu’s cool eye of reason and Tefnut’s hot eye of vengeance, together representing ma’at, illustrate the concept of balance and order in the universe. The Eye of Horus or Wadjet serves as a potent symbol of protection and watchfulness. The intricate connections between these deities and the cyclic nature of time and life underscore the profound understanding and reverence ancient Egyptians held for the cosmic forces that governed their world.

The Wadget Eye or Eye of Horus

The Wadjet Eye, also known as the Eye of Horus, was associated with health and well-being. It was believed to provide protection, especially during childbirth, and was commonly used as an amulet to ward off evil spirits and ensure good fortune.

The Wadjet Eye, also known as the Eye of Horus, held a special place in ancient Egyptian beliefs, associated with health, protection, and good fortune. This powerful symbol was often connected to matters concerning childbirth, where its protective properties were believed to bring blessings and safeguard the well-being of both mother and child.

In the context of childbirth, the Eye of Horus was seen as a guardian, ensuring a safe and successful delivery for expectant mothers. The eye’s watchful and protective nature was believed to ward off any malevolent forces or evil spirits that might threaten the health and safety of the mother and her baby.

As a powerful talisman, the Eye of Horus was commonly used as an amulet or charm to be worn or carried by individuals seeking its protective blessings. It served as a potent symbol of divine care and safeguarding, instilling a sense of comfort and reassurance in those who held it close.

Beyond its association with childbirth, the Wadjet Eye’s protective properties extended to various aspects of life. It was considered a potent amulet to guard against negative energies, bad luck, and misfortune. By carrying the Eye of Horus, people sought to attract good fortune and blessings while repelling any harmful influences that might come their way.

The Eye of Horus also represented the watchful eye of the sky god, Horus, who oversaw the world and ensured its well-being. This connection to divine protection further solidified the eye’s significance and its role as a symbol of life, health, and protection in Egyptian culture.

The timeless appeal of the Wadjet Eye endures to this day, with its influence reaching far beyond ancient Egypt. Its significance as a symbol of protection and well-being continues to resonate with people worldwide, and it remains a popular motif in art, jewellery, and tattoo designs, signifying a connection to ancient wisdom and the enduring power of its protective symbolism.


The Magic Eye in the Tomb of Pashedu (TT3)

Pashedu, an esteemed craftsman of the New Kingdom, was a significant figure in the artistic community at Deir el-Medina. His family had a history of craftsmanship, with his father, Menna, working at the Temple of Amun. Pashedu’s career began as a stonemason, where his skills and dedication earned him a promotion to foreman, indicating his exceptional talent and leadership.

Pashedu’s life was interwoven with family and devotion to his craft. He was married to Nedjembehdet, and together they raised several children, fostering a legacy of craftsmanship that would be carried forward through generations.

In death, Pashedu was honoured with the title “Servant in the Place of Truth on the West of Thebes.” This designation reflected his connection to the afterlife and the divine realm, a belief deeply ingrained in ancient Egyptian culture. The “Place of Truth” referred to the necropolis on the west bank of the Nile, where tombs and mortuary temples were built.

The picture of Pashedu’s tomb holds a fascinating depiction that unveils his profound beliefs about the afterlife. In the image, the Eye of Horus, a powerful symbol of protection, is shown holding a libation bowl. Interestingly, the bowl is being filled with a peculiar substance emanating from Pashedu’s flail.

Pashedu chose to represent himself as Osiris, the Egyptian god associated with resurrection and the afterlife. This practice of identifying with Osiris was also employed by kings in their tombs. By adopting this representation, Pashedu sought to align himself with the divine realm and the eternal journey of Osiris in the afterlife.

The scene of the magical Eye of Horus being filled carries profound symbolism related to the afterlife. The libation ritual was a way of offering sustenance and nourishment to the deceased for their journey to the afterlife. It symbolized the continuation of life and the spiritual essence required for a successful passage into the divine realm.

The details of how this symbolism related to the afterlife, along with the broader context of Pashedu’s tomb and beliefs, are set to be revealed in an upcoming book. Pashedu’s tomb art and inscriptions provide invaluable insights into the spiritual and cultural beliefs of ancient Egypt, shedding light on the intriguing and timeless quest for understanding the mysteries of life, death, and the afterlife.


Concluding Thoughts on Magical Eyes

To conclude, in ancient Egypt, magical eyes were revered for their potent symbolism and protective qualities. Among the most well-known magical eyes were the Eye of Horus and the Eye of Ra. The Eye of Horus represented the moon and the sun, embodying healing and regeneration. Meanwhile, the Eye of Ra personified the vigilant protection of the sun god, capable of unleashing destructive forces against foes.

It’s essential to note that while these magical eyes were powerful symbols in ancient Egyptian culture, there is a common misconception surrounding the belief that Anubis, the god of the dead, possessed a magic eye. In popular culture and media, Anubis is often inaccurately portrayed with an evil eye and associated with malevolent powers. However, this depiction is a modern invention and deviates from authentic ancient Egyptian beliefs.

In truth, Anubis was depicted as a jackal-headed figure, symbolizing his role as the guide and protector of souls in the afterlife. His primary responsibility was to oversee the mummification and burial process, ensuring a smooth transition to the other world. Contrary to the false notion of a magic eye, Anubis was a god associated with peace, protection, and respect in death, not malevolence.

Despite the inaccuracies surrounding Anubis’ portrayal, the fascination with magical eyes remains a testament to the enduring allure of ancient Egyptian mythology. The Eye of Horus and the Eye of Ra, with their potent symbolism and associations with protection and divine power, continue to captivate the imagination and inspire art, tattoos, and various creative expressions.

Magical eyes held great significance in ancient Egyptian culture, represented by symbols such as the Eye of Horus and the Eye of Ra. These eyes symbolized protection, healing, and the power of the gods. While a false belief persists about Anubis having a magic eye in popular culture, the truth is that he was a benevolent god associated with the afterlife. The enduring fascination with magical eyes attests to the profound and timeless allure of ancient Egyptian beliefs and their impact on contemporary imagination and artistic expressions.

See Also:

Questions in Egyptology 6: Did Anubis Have a Magic Eye?

Questions in Egyptology 5: What was the punishment for Ancient Egyptians if caught tomb-robbing?

Questions in Egyptology No. 4: Did the Ancient Egyptians Have a Religion?

Questions in Egyptology No 3. Did the Egyptians Influence the Greeks?

Questions in Egyptology No. 1 – The Cartouche – what did it protect?

Questions in Egyptology No. 2: How Long Did it Take to Mummify a Pharaoh?

Questions in Egyptology 5: Tomb Robbery: Punishments and Culprits

Questions in Egyptology 5: Tomb Robbery: Punishments and Culprits

Tomb Robbery: Punishments and Culprits

 

Introduction:

Step back to ancient Egypt’s world of tomb robbery, where treasures beckoned both pharaohs and petty criminals. This thriving black market had its consequences.

Tomb Robbery Papyri: A Treasure Trove of Insights

The Tomb Robbery Papyri are invaluable historical records, offering a window into the complex and often nefarious world of tomb breaking during Ancient Egypt’s Twentieth Dynasty. These documents provide a wealth of information about how tomb thefts were carried out and investigated, shedding light on the methods, motivations, and consequences of this illicit activity.

Among the remarkable pieces of evidence from this era is the Harris Papyrus, also known as BM EA10054, a significant artefact that found its home in the British Museum. This ancient document measures 116cm in length and 41cm in width, with an additional loose 10cm. It contains multiple texts, but the ones most relevant to our discussion are those found on Verso p.1 and Recto p.1. These sections vividly outline the examination of Amenpnūfer, a quarryman implicated in tomb theivery west of Thebes. His account, given under duress following a ‘beating with the stick,’ provides intricate details of his involvement in these crimes and the severe punishments inflicted on him and his fellow robbers.

Tomb Robbery in Ancient Egypt: A Complex Saga

Unveiling the Phases

Tomb robbery in ancient Egypt had many phases tied to the economic state of the time. As tomb break-ins surged, it was more than just an indication of evolving burial practices or religious beliefs, although these factors played a role. A closer examination of the socio-economic landscape reveals a more nuanced picture. An increase in tomb-robbing can be seen as symptomatic of a society facing financial desperation, which led some to turn to the burial sites of their family members in search of commodities.

Not Just for the Desperate

Tomb robbery wasn’t solely a desperate act. Even families of the deceased indulged. The escalating prices of goods and services and the financial hardship that left many labourers unpaid precipitated a necessary departure from the extravagant burial practices of earlier periods. In this economic context, Grave robbery emerged as a means to reintroduce valuable commodities into the market. Previously reserved for religious functions, these items retained significant monetary value. Among the coveted items were canopic jars, pieces of jewellery, amulets, and other material goods that held particular importance, especially in the earlier New Kingdom, as they were deemed essential for the deceased’s journey into the afterlife.

Changing Economic Landscape

The economic upheaval led to less lavish burials, prompting tomb robbers to reintroduce valuable goods into the market. In the Twenty-First Dynasty, mummification complexities made the body a valuable commodity.

Amenhotep I initiated the construction of Deir el-Medina, known as Set-Ma’at, to curb tomb pilfering. Villagers, reliant on the state, guarded tombs discreetly.

Initially effective, this system faltered. Deir el-Medina lacked self-sufficiency, relying on monthly Thebes supplies and Nile water. Late, basic deliveries tempted workers to rob tombs.

Relationships soured during Ramesses III’s reign, as late and missing shipments threatened worker livelihoods. The first recorded labour strike ensued.

Although the strike secured wages, it failed to address the supply problem. Late payments persisted during the New Kingdom’s decline.

Simplified Burials and the Complex Mummification Process

The Twenty-First Dynasty witnessed a transformation in burial patterns, marked by remarkably simpler interments. However, these burials still ensured that the deceased retained value for their journey into the afterlife. To achieve this, the mummification process underwent significant changes.

In contrast to the relatively straightforward embalming methods of earlier periods, during the Twenty-First Dynasty, a new trend emerged. The faces of the deceased were reconstructed on their bodies, and, in some cases, the abdomen was stuffed following organ removal, creating the appearance of vitality. This evolution in mummification practices is intriguingly linked to the prevalence of tomb robbery. By emphasizing the body itself as a valuable commodity, this approach sought to safeguard a unique asset that could not be easily sold or dismantled, as opposed to material goods commonly associated with burials.

Common Stolen Items

Gold and copper from coffins were common targets for tomb robbers due to their easy saleability. One of the most frequently stolen items from tombs was the gold or copper from the coffins themselves. This theft was relatively easy to execute and profitable due to the saleability of these metals without questions about their origin. Interestingly, the stripping of coffins was not limited to professional tomb robbers. Even amateur thieves seeking a modest profit engaged in this practice.

Elites’ Countermeasures

Elites adopted security measures to protect their tombs, but workers’ complicity led to ongoing theft. In response to the rising tide of tomb robberies, particularly in elite graves, measures were taken to safeguard the resting places of the deceased. Elites hired security personnel, acquired more discreet burial plots, and offered incentives to those working on the tomb to reduce the chances of information leaking.

The Pervasiveness of Tomb Robbery

Tomb robbery’s prevalence reveals the economic crises of the late New Kingdom Dynasties. During the New Kingdom (c. 1570 – c. 1069 BCE), tomb robbery escalated. Amenhotep I initiated Deir el-Medina near the Valley of the Kings for secure burials. Despite isolation, tomb protection remained a challenge.

Re-Commodifying Burial Goods

Robbing tombs involved re-commodifying items meant for the deceased, reflecting significant social attitudes. The significance attached to religious objects within burial contexts underscores the extent to which individuals, elites, and even royals emphasised the importance of tomb goods for the deceased in their journey beyond death. The act of re-commodifying these items holds profound significance, symbolising a shift in the cultural and economic landscape.

State-Led Tomb Mining

State-led mining of tombs, especially in the Valley of the Kings, was fueled by Egypt’s economic crisis.During the late Twentieth Dynasty, Egypt resorted to state-led mining of tombs to acquire burial goods, even from high-profile sites like the Valley of the Kings. These commodities were frequently repurposed in subsequent royal burials, illustrating the extent to which tomb robbery had become pervasive during Egypt’s economic turmoil.

Complex Dynamics

Tomb robbery was multifaceted, driven by economic woes, social norms, and shifting burial practices in ancient Egypt.

The Culprits and Punishments:

The severity of punishment hinged on who dared to disturb the sanctity of Egyptian tombs. Believe it or not, pharaohs themselves occasionally succumbed to the temptation of robbing their long-departed ancestors’ graves in pursuit of treasures. It’s reminiscent of the Vikings raiding Bronze Age barrows in Ireland.

Desecration Unveiled:

In the late 19th century, shocking discoveries revealed caches of sarcophagi and mummies desecrated by the Pharaohs of the New Kingdom.

Different actors, different motivations:

Tomb robbing was a lucrative endeavour, but those involved faced varying consequences, shedding light on this intriguing facet of ancient Egypt’s history.


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Tomb G 7000X of Hetepheres I, burial chamber, looking South (1926)

The Vulnerable Tomb of a Pharaoh’s Mother

Even Pharaohs’ Kin Targeted:

In the shadowy world of tomb robbery, not even the family of a pharaoh was immune. Take, for instance, the case of Khufu’s mother, whose final resting place was violated mere years after her burial.

Khufu’s Mother’s Misfortune:

Khufu, renowned as the builder of the Great Pyramid of Giza, faced a heart-wrenching revelation—his mother’s tomb had fallen victim to robbers shortly after her interment.

A Son’s Grief:

Unaware of the theft of her body, Khufu reburied her sarcophagus, oblivious to the missing remains. It’s a poignant reminder of the depths tomb robbers would go to, even within their own ranks.

Possible Motive:

The culprits likely spirited away her body to pilfer the precious jewellery she was buried with, leaving behind a trail of sorrow and mystery.

 

Tomb Robbing in Ancient Egypt


The Thriving Black Market and Petty Criminals of Tomb Robbery

Burial Charms and the Black Market:

The allure of burial charms and trinkets fueled a clandestine black market, where desires for a prosperous afterlife ran deep.

A Widespread Yearning:

In ancient Egypt, the aspiration for a dignified burial and a few protective charms was universal—a testament to the significance of the afterlife.

The Culprits Unveiled:

Unveiling the culprits behind the tomb robbery, it becomes apparent that most were petty criminals. Among them were stonemasons, coppersmiths, and even doorkeepers—individuals from modest backgrounds enticed by the promise of instant wealth.

Inside Help:

Poorly compensated officials and guards, susceptible to bribes, likely played a role in facilitating these daring thefts. The audacity of tomb robbers in Thebes hints at potential inside assistance.


Inside Jobs and Bribes

Tomb Robbing in Ancient Egypt

Unmasking the Audacious Tomb Thieves of Thebes

Collusion with Officials and Guards:

The audacious tomb robbers of Thebes left a trail of suspicion, with whispers of collaboration from underpaid officials and guards who succumbed to bribery, facilitating their nefarious endeavours. However, the problem extended beyond large-scale robberies. Many tomb robberies occurred during the burial of new bodies in group tombs, with workers surreptitiously chiselling away gold and silver from previous burials hidden beneath the new coffin. This unsettling revelation suggests that tomb robbery culture permeated various layers of society, including workers within the funerary industry.

The Tradesmen Thieves:

Most of these tomb raiders hailed from the ranks of skilled tradesmen. Their expertise extended to melting down gold and silver or skillfully reshaping items to render them “new.” In an economy predicated on metal weight and barter, the practice of disassembling jewellery for its intrinsic worth and trading it for other commodities thrived.

Ipuwer Papyrus - Wikipedia

Ipuwer Papyrus

Ancient Egypt’s Turmoil and Punishments for Tomb Robbery

Ipu-wer’s Reflections:

Amidst the turbulent era following the Old Kingdom’s fall, Ipu-wer lamented how wealth turned some into plunderers and robbers, signifying the distress that gripped Egypt for nearly two centuries.

Royal Chastisement:

During those tumultuous times, a subdued king advised his son against despoiling others’ monuments, emphasizing quarrying stone in Tura. As tombs were pillaged, mortuary cults ceased, and the pyramid of Khufu faced likely violation.

The Odds of Being Caught:

The scale of theft hinted at low risks of capture, but if caught, robbers would be “taught a lesson.” Seti I’s Nauri Decree delineated harsh penalties for various theft forms, from beatings and forced labour to amputation, extending even to the offender’s family.

Crimes Against Pharaoh: Capital Offenses:

Stealing from royal tombs and high treason constituted crimes against the pharaoh, punishable by death. While execution is applied to murderers, records remain scarce. Other potential capital offences included adultery, mentioned within the Westcar Papyrus.


Sources:

Law and Order in Ancient Egypt, J.A Van Loon, Leiden University.

Robbing Pharaoh: Royal Tombs and the Underground Economy, Special Lecture to accompany exhibit of artifacts from Tutankhamun’s tomb at Dynamic Earth,. Sudbury, Ontario. August 2015; SSEA Symposium on Crime and Punishment in Ancient Egypt, Toronto, Nov. 1998 Sally Katary

See Also:

Questions in Egyptology No. 1 – The Cartouche – what did it protect?

Questions in Egyptology No. 2: How Long Did it Take to Mummify a Pharaoh?

Questions in Egyptology No 3. Did the Egyptians Influence the Greeks?

 

Questions in Egyptology No. 4: Did the Ancient Egyptians Have a Religion?

Questions in Egyptology No. 4: Did the Ancient Egyptians Have a Religion?

Did the ancient Egyptians have a religion, or did they worship cults?

Whether the ancient Egyptians possessed a religion remains a hotly debated topic among Egyptologists. The complexity of their beliefs is a puzzle that scholars continue to explore. In this blog post, we will delve into the evidence and theories surrounding the spiritual practices of this fascinating civilization.

Defining Religion:

Before we embark on this journey, it’s crucial to understand what “religion” meant to the ancient Egyptians. Our modern interpretation may not entirely align with theirs.

The word religion has a Latin origin. The ancient Egyptians had no word for religion and so the argument goes, therefore, they had no concept of religion. They also had no word of cosmos or art but they believed they lived in a god-made cosmos and they practiced all manner of arts. So, the absence of a word for something does not mean it did not exist.

Egyptologists take their lead on religion from anthropologists. This makes religion into the study of people, not the study of belief or spiritual beings and relationships with them. (Tylor, 1871). Tylor’s definition is not the most up-to-date. But it works. It provides a good definition of what most of us think of when we think about religion.

The anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor (1832–1917) defined religion as belief in spiritual beings and stated that this belief originated as explanations of natural phenomena. … They used this by extension to explain life and death, and belief in the afterlife.

Book by Stephen Quirke https://www.amazon.co.uk/Cult-Ra-Sun-worship-Ancient-Egypt/dp/0500051070

What is a cult?

In Egyptology, the term cult means the daily tending and worship of an image of a deity. In ancient Egypt, the temples were the houses of the gods. The gods were thought to descend from the sky temporarily to live in their cult statues which were located in the temple’s inner sanctuaries.

The temples were also the stage for daily rituals that were ideally performed by the pharaoh, but in practice were performed by the resident priests. During religious festivals, cult statues could be brought out of the temple. For example at Dendera statues were brought out onto the cult terrace so that people could see them.

The Daily Cult Routine and Ceremonies

The shrine containing the god’s cult image was:

  • opened at dawn,
  • greeted and praised with prayers and hymns,
  • purified with libations and the burning of incense,
  • clothed in fresh linen, and
  • fed with bread, cakes and water.
The Magic of Heka: Ancient Egyptian Rituals That Have Crossed Cultures and Time | Ancient Origins
The Obsequies of an Egyptian Cat, John Reinhard Weguelin, 1886.

Every day at dawn the priests performed the ceremony of the creation of the cosmos. It began with a ritual called “Lighting the Fire.” This ritual was held in the most sacred room of the temple and was performed by the high ranking members of the priesthood in the name of the king. It was a reenactment of the first appearance,
and daily reappearance, of the sun.

Next, they performed a ritual known as “Drawing the Bolt.” During this rite, the priests opened the door to the shrine where the main cult statue stood. The statue’s clothing was removed; and underwent ritual purification, dressing, and feeding. The lower-ranking priests were responsible for preparing the ceremony and disposing of the food and water.

At midday, ceremonies of ritual purification for the lesser gods were performed and as the daylight faded the whole morning ceremony was reversed. The statues of the gods were closed again and left to sleep overnight ready for their morning awakening.

So, was there an ancient Egyptian religion, or was it a collection of cults?

When Jean François Champollion unlocked the secret code of Egypt’s most sacred language, hieroglyphs, in 1822 he unlocked many wonders of a long-hidden world. It was a world populated by strange and mysterious gods with human bodies and animal heads.

From the start, Egyptology committed itself to the study of Egypt’s ancient religion; particularly to its beliefs about life after death. But it has never been agreed that the ancient Egyptians had a comprehensive worldview or ‘metaphysical moral vision’ that was accepted as binding because it was held to be in itself basically true and just even if all dimensions of it could not be either fully confirmed or refuted.

And so, since the translation of the ‘divine words’ Egyptology has fallen short in one important respect: it has failed to produce a description of the ancient Egyptian gods and religion that is in any way commensurate with the scale and impressiveness of its sacred monuments.

Egyptologists focused on words, almost to the exclusion of everything else. Buildings and monuments are the domain of the archaeologists; the wonderful art of the tombs and precious funeral artefacts found in them were the domain of art historians, and the anthropologists are processing ancient Egyptian religion through a variety of pan-world theories that render religion down to observable social behaviours.

Image result for gods of ancient egypt creative commons

Enthroned Osiris judging the dead


Worship of Deities:

Central to their spiritual framework were gods and goddesses who symbolized natural forces and concepts. These divine beings influenced daily life and the cosmos.

The Gods

Today the gods and religion of ancient Egyptians are portrayed as mundane and soulless; there is no sense that the gods were holy, divine, or transcendent and certainly no sense that once people believed they contained the ultimate mystery of life, death and, the cosmos.

Image result for cosmos ancient egypt creative commons

The sun rises over the circular mound of creation as goddesses pour out the primeval waters around it.

Image result for god statue ancient egypt creative commons

Brooklyn Museum A figure of the Goddess Nephthys

In ancient times, the gods were kept from common view, they were kept or made pure and special. This kept them sacred and helped people to believe the gods were powerful enough to help them fulfill their deepest needs and longings. But the gods were not just there to help when times were bad they filled people with both reverence and terror. What was sacred was protected and adored. Sacred spaces and objects represented the intersection between the limits of temporal human effort and the unlimited possibilities of the metaphysical.

Egyptian religion was not an individual means for orienting or transforming oneself in the world as religion is in the West today. Instead, it was a complex and rich human phenomenon that formed the mental architecture of the whole of society.

The King

In Egyptology, sacredness is believed to lie primarily in the person of the king; in his tomb, his temples and in his cult statue, in his images and in the ritual objects he used in sacred performances.

In theory, it was the pharaoh’s duty to carry out temple rituals, as he was the human link to the gods – his dead father and mother were believed to be gods and he himself would become a god when he joined them in the afterlife.

For the Egyptians, the king was the pinnacle of Egyptian society. He was the head of the state, their supreme warlord, and the chief priest of every god in the kingdom.

The ancient Egyptian king was believed to be the son of a god, chief priest, and mediator between the gods in heaven and the people on earth. So, in reality, his ritual duties were almost always carried out by priests.

Image result for king statue ancient egypt creative commons

The picture above: Khafra (also read as Khafre, Khefren and Greek: Χεφρήν Chephren) was an ancient Egyptian king (pharaoh) of the 4th Dynasty during the Old Kingdom. He was the son of Khufu and the throne successor of Djedefre. According to the ancient historian Manetho, Khafra was followed by king Bikheris, but according to archaeological evidence, he was instead followed by king Menkaure. Khafra was the builder of the second-largest pyramid of Giza.

The Priests

The king’s priests were initiated into the sacred cults; they learned and maintained the sacred systems; its requirements, and its taboos; and they maintained the sacred order and the prevailing worldview among the non-literate. The concept of sacredness extended beyond the king to the natural world, to the river Nile, the sky, the sun, the moon, and the stars.

Once initiated, the priest led the community in connecting with the supernatural to access its divine benefits – health, good fortune, and life after death.

During the Old and Middle Kingdoms, government officials served as priests on a part-time basis. Full-time priests only appear in the New Kingdom.

The temple staff also included many people other than priests, such as musicians and chanters in temple ceremonies.

Outside the temple were artisans and other labourers who helped supply the temple’s needs, as well as farmers who worked on temple estates. All were paid with portions of the temple’s income. Large temples were therefore very important centres of economic activity, sometimes employing thousands of people.

There were many different types of priests:

  • Male priests were known as hem-netjer, females as hemet-netjer or servants of the god. The top priest was the hem-netjer-tepi,  or ‘first servant of god’.
  • The wab priests, the lowest rank, did all the routine unskilled work in the temple.
  • The hour-priests were astronomers.
  • Sem priests presided over mortuary rituals and conducted funeral services.
  • The Lector priest or hery-heb or cheriheb wrote the religious texts, instructed trainee clergy, and recited the prayers invoking the gods’ presence in the temple and at festivals. In ancient Egyptian literature, lector priests are often portrayed as the keepers of secret knowledge and the performers of amazing magical feats.

Sacerdote kher-heb

The Moral Vision

Evidence from the archaeological record shows that the ancient Egyptians believed they were responsible for their own moral behaviour. They believed, at least in some form, of what we would call ‘free will’. The gods, particularly Osiris, were the ultimate judges of people’s moral actions. Leading a moral life was the gateway to a second life beyond death and was called ma’at.

The average ancient Egyptian was a lover of life. He or she felt sure that right-doing brought success and happiness, whereas evil-doing was bound to bring failure. This social ethic covered all members of society. Family, friends, neighbours, village and town, the nation and foreigners too. Fair dealing and benevolence were viewed as the leading virtues; greed was deemed the most pernicious vice.

In sum, the ancient Egyptians recognized the brotherhood of mankind.

Conclusion

The question of whether ancient Egyptians practised religion is an enigma that eludes a definitive answer. But, by understanding what was sacred to the ancient Egyptians it is possible to get a new view of ancient Egypt and ancient Egyptian religion. What we see is rich religious symbolism and philosophy and the development of the world’s first great religion.

Whether we could recreate this religion with all its rituals, ceremonies and mysticism is unlikely. It would be difficult to fool an ancient Egyptian into believing he/she was in a real temple, following a real service because there is so much we don’t know and perhaps will never know. However, I am sure the ancient Egyptians had a religion and that it was deeply meaningful to them. After all, look at what their beliefs inspired.

 

 

Questions in Egyptology No 3. Did the Egyptians Influence the Greeks?

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The Tragic Life of Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla

Questions in Egyptology No 3. Did the Egyptians Influence the Greeks?

Questions in Egyptology No 3. Did the Egyptians Influence the Greeks?

I know that the generally accepted academic view is that the ancient Egyptians had no influence on the development of Greek mathematics, philosophy and cosmology.

But I believe there is evidence, that has been overlooked by the mainstream. This evidence shows the Greek mathematicians and philosophers such as Meltis, Pythagoras (or the Pythagorean cult I know the character we call Pythagoras probably never existed) and Plato were all influenced by what they learned about numbers in Egypt.

In Raphael’s fresco The School of Athens, Pythagoras is shown writing in a book as a young man presents him with a tablet showing a diagrammatic representation of a lyre above a drawing of the sacred tetractys.

The Academics do not Understand

The reason Egypt’s contribution to the development of mathematics and Western culture has been misunderstood is because academics do not understand what the ancient Egyptians did with numbers. They have decided Egyptian numbers were used in a purely profane way, meaning to quantify stuff or put things in numerical order. However, there is a good deal of evidence that the ancient Egyptian also used numbers as metaphors to describe the cosmos. I’m working on a book about numbers as metaphors for what was sacred in ancient Egypt, and the evidence is compelling. Well, I can hear you say. ‘She would say that wouldn’t she.’ But I think when the book comes out a lot of people will agree.

In the ancient Greek civilisation where the first philosophers attempted to explain the creation of the Universe, the hymns of mysticist Orpheus proved to be of significant importance. These myths introduced the term ‘Chaos’ to our vocabulary. This is another reason Egyptian cosmology has not been understood. The Greek notion of chaos has been superimposed onto the ancient Egyptians whose prima materia was not chaotic but inert, dark, limitless, timeless and without form.

According to Orpheus, Chaos condensed into the giant Cosmic Egg, whose rupture resulted in the creation of Phanes and Ouranos and of all the gods who symbolise the creation of the Universe. Later, Greek philosophers supported the view that chaos describes the unformed and infinite void, from which the Universe was created.

Engraving of a marble relief of Phanes.jpg. From Wikimedia Commons …

After visiting Egypt, so his biographer said, Thales of Miletus (624/623 – c. 548/545 BCE) claimed that the Earth floats on water and that earthquakes occur when the Earth is rocked by waves, an idea he probably picked up in Egypt where they believed all of creation came out of the infinite waters of the Nun and where the Earth was believed to be surrounded by the water of Nun.

Thales was also known for his innovative use of geometry. For example, he said: Megiston topos: apanta gar chorei (Μέγιστον τόπος· ἄπαντα γὰρ χωρεῖ.) The greatest is space, for it holds all things. Again this is an idea he may have learned about in Egypt. The ancient Egyptian god Shu was the god of space or emptiness. Shu held the bubble of air that contained the Earth in the ancient Egyptian cosmology. Shu’s role in creating the triangle of creation occurred when he mythically lifted the body of the goddess Nut to form the vault of the sky, beneath him lay the body of the Earth god Geb. Flinders Petrie was the first to notice that the King’s Chamber of the Great Pyramid of Giza was based on a 3–4–5 pyramid, built c. 2,500 BCE and this may be why it’s there.

Wikimedia: Nut forming the arc of the heavens, Shu supported by Khumn in the centre, and Geb in a prone position lying on the Earth.

Mathematically, topos, Newtonian-style space, is connected with the verb, chorei. This word has the connotation of yielding before things or spreading out to make room for them, which is ‘extension’. Within this extension, things have a position. Points, lines, planes and solids related by distances and angles follow from this presumption. Thales’ understanding of triangles may have started in Egypt where the triangle is an enduring feature of their architecture and creation myths. However, unlike the Egyptians who used triangles for sacred things.  Thales may well have taken what he learned about Egyptian sacred space and used in a more practical way. It is said that he measured the height of the pyramids by their shadows at the moment when his own shadow was equal to his height. This is possible because a right triangle with two equal legs is a 45-degree right triangle, all of which are similar. The length of the pyramid’s shadow measured from the centre of the pyramid at that moment must have been equal to its height.

Thales use of the right-angled triangle is a clear indication he was familiar with the Egyptian seked, or seqed, the ratio of the run to the rise of a slope (cotangent). The seked is at the base of problems 56, 57, 58, 59 and 60 of the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus which dates to the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt. It was copied by the scribe Ahmes (i.e., Ahmose; Ahmes is an older transcription favoured by historians of mathematics), from a now-lost text from the reign of King Amenemhat III (12th dynasty).

Wikimedia Commons: Rhind Mathematical Papyrus

Pythagoras of Samos (c. 570 – c. 495 BC)

Pythagoras was an ancient Ionian Greek philosopher and the eponymous founder of Pythagoreanism. His political and religious teachings were well known in Magna Graecia and influenced the philosophies of Plato, Aristotle, and, through them, Western philosophy.

According to Aristotle, the Pythagoreans used mathematics for solely mystical reasons. Their use of number was devoid of all practical application. They believed that all things were made of numbers.

The number one (the monad) represented the origin of all things.

The number two (the dyad) represented matter.

The number three was an “ideal number” because it had a beginning, middle, and end and was the smallest number of points that could be used to define a plane triangle, which they revered as a symbol of the god Apollo.

The number four signified the four seasons and the four elements.

The number seven was also sacred because it was the number of planets and the number of strings on a lyre, and because Apollo’s birthday was celebrated on the seventh day of each month.

They believed that odd numbers were masculine, that even numbers were feminine, and that the number five represented marriage because it was the sum of two and three.

Ten was regarded as the “perfect number” and the Pythagoreans honoured it by never gathering in groups larger than ten. Pythagoras was credited with devising the Tetractys, the triangular figure of four rows which add up to the perfect number, ten.

The Tetractys

The Tetractys was made using counting stones (psēphoi). Four rows of stones were placed one above another in the shape of an equilateral triangle. The equilateral triangle was considered a perfect figure.

The Pythagoreans regarded the Tetractys as a symbol of utmost mystical importance.

Iamblichus, in his Life of Pythagoras, states that the Tetractys was “so admirable, and so divinised by those who understood [it],” that Pythagoras’s students would swear oaths by it. As a mystical symbol, it was very important to the secret worship of Pythagoreanism.

Pythagorean cosmology was based on the assumption that the cosmos is harmoniously ordered according to mathematical rules. For the Pythagoreans, the Tetractys expressed the universal harmony of the cosmos. Therefore, some Pythagoreans assumed that there must be ten celestial bodies in motion.

Tetractys - Wikipedia

The Tetratys

 

Modern scholars debate whether these numerological teachings were developed by Pythagoras himself or by the later Pythagorean philosopher Philolaus of Croton.

I believe Pythagoras whoever he was, and his followers developed the Tetractys after visiting Egypt.

The Pythagorean Mystery Numbers are not exactly the same as the meaning of the Egyptian sacred numbers I have discovered but I believe the Pythagoreans got the idea of modelling the universe with numbers from the Egyptians. I will show how they did it in the book I’m working on with the working title, ‘The Numbers of Thoth’ by Julia and Martin Herdman.

Short Bibliography

Imhausen, A. (2016). Mathematics in Ancient Egypt, A Contextual History. Princeton University Press

Rossi, C. (2004). Architecture and Mathematics in Ancient Egypt. Cambridge University Press.

Smith, D. (1958). The History of Mathematics: Volume II. Dover.

Thomas, I. B. (1983). Plato’s Theory of Number. The Classical Quarterly, 375-384.

Zhmud, L. (1989). Pythagoras as a Mathematician. Historia Mathematica, 249-268.

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See Also:

 

Forty years of documenting the Great Sphinx of Giza

Ancient Egypt – Cheapskate Coffin Makers

 

Getting the Pharaoh to the Afterlife

 

Garden Paintings in Tombs

 

 

 

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